Action-centred leadership model

John Adair’s action-centred leadership model

The three parts of Adair's Action-Centred Leadership model are commonly represented by three overlapping circles, which is a trademark belonging to John Adair. Adair's famous 'three circles' model is one of the most recognizable and iconic symbols within management theory. When you refer to this diagram for teaching and training purposes please attribute it to John Adair, and help preserve the integrity and origins of this excellent model.

John Adair's action-centred leadership task-team-individual model adapts extremely well (as below) for the demands of modern business management. When using it in your own environment think about the aspects of performance necessary for success in your own situation, and incorporate local relevant factors into the model to create your own interpretation. This will give you a very useful management framework:

Your responsibilities as a manager for achieving the task are:

· identify aims and vision for the group, purpose, and direction - define the activity (the task)

· identify resources, people, processes, systems and tools (inc. financials, communications, IT)

· create the plan to achieve the task - deliverables, measures, timescales, strategy and tactics

· establish responsibilities, objectives, accountabilities and measures, by agreement and delegation

· set standards, quality, time and reporting parameters

· control and maintain activities against parameters

· monitor and maintain overall performance against plan

· report on progress towards the group's aim

· review, re-assess, adjust plan, methods and targets as necessary

Your responsibilities as a manager for the group are:

· establish, agree and communicate standards of performance and behaviour

· establish style, culture, approach of the group - soft skill elements

· monitor and maintain discipline, ethics, integrity and focus on objectives

· anticipate and resolve group conflict, struggles or disagreements

· assess and change as necessary the balance and composition of the group

· develop team-working, cooperation, morale and team-spirit

· develop the collective maturity and capability of the group - progressively increase group freedom and authority

· encourage the team towards objectives and aims - motivate the group and provide a collective sense of purpose

· identify, develop and agree team- and project-leadership roles within group

· enable, facilitate and ensure effective internal and external group communications

· identify and meet group training needs

· give feedback to the group on overall progress; consult with, and seek feedback and input from the group

Your responsibilities as a manager for each individual are:

· understand the team members as individuals - personality, skills, strengths, needs, aims and fears

· assist and support individuals - plans, problems, challenges, highs and lows

· identify and agree appropriate individual responsibilities and objectives

· give recognition and praise to individuals - acknowledge effort and good work

· where appropriate reward individuals with extra responsibility, advancement and status

· identify, develop and utilise each individual's capabilities and strengths

· train and develop individual team members

· develop individual freedom and authority

Decision-making

Simple processes for problem-solving and decision-making

 

Problem solving and decision-making are important skills for business and life. Problem-solving often involves decision-making, and decision-making is especially important for management and leadership. There are processes and techniques to improve decision-making and the quality of decisions. Decision-making is more natural to certain personalities, so these people should focus more on improving the quality of their decisions. People that are less natural decision-makers are often able to make quality assessments, but then need to be more decisive in acting upon the assessments made. Problem-solving and decision-making are closely linked, and each requires creativity in identifying and developing options, for which the brainstorming technique is particularly useful. See also see SWOT analysis templates, and PEST analysis template, which help decision-making and problem-solving. SWOT analysis helps assess the strength of a company, a business proposition or idea; PEST analysis helps to assess the potential and suitability of a market. Good decision-making requires a mixture of skills: creative development and identification of options, clarity of judgement, firmness of decision, and effective implementation. For group problem-solving and decision-making, or when a consensus is required, workshops help, within which you can incorporate these tools and process as appropriate. Here are some useful methods for effective decision-making and problem-solving: First a simple step-by-step process for effective decision-making and problem-solving. 

Decision-making process

Define and clarify the issue - does it warrant action? If so, now? Is the matter urgent, important or both. See the Pareto Principle , which is :

The Pareto Principle (at a simple level) suggests that where two related data sets or groups exist (typically cause and effect, or input and output):

"80 percent of output is produced by 20 percent of input."

or alternatively

"80 percent of outcomes are from 20 percent of causes"

or alternatively

"80 percent of contribution comes from 20 percent of the potential contribution available"

There is no definitive Pareto 'quote' as such - the above are my own simplified interpretations

So back to the process ……..

1.   Gather all the facts and understand their causes.

2.   Think about or brainstorm possible options and solutions.

3.   Consider and compare the pros and cons of each option - consult if necessary - it probably will be.

4.   Select the best option - avoid vagueness or 'foot in both camps' compromise.

5.   Explain your decision to those involved and affected, and follow up to ensure proper and effective implementation.

Decision-making maxims will help to reinforce the above decision-making process whether related to problem-solving or not, for example:

"We know what happens to people who stay in the middle of the road. They get run down." (Aneurin Bevan)

"In any moment of decision the best thing you can do is the right thing, the next best thing is the wrong thing, and the worst thing you can do is nothing." (attributed to Theodore Roosevelt)

 JFDI - Just Frigging Do it (polite version). The decision-maker's motto. There are usually several right answers when you are faced with a complex decision. When you've found the best solution you can find, get on with it, make it work, and it most probably will.

Remember the Star Principal . Stop , Think, Act , Review

Pros and cons decision-making method

Another simple process for decision-making is the pros and cons list.

Pro means 'for', and con means 'against'. In other words, advantages and disadvantages.

This method also applies to all sorts of problem-solving where issues and implications need to be understood and a decision has to be made.

Some decisions are a simple matter of whether to make a change or not, such as moving, taking a new job, or buying something, selling something, replacing something, etc. Other decisions involve number of options, and are concerned more with how to do something, involving a number of choices. Use the brainstorming process to identify and develop options for decision-making and problem-solving.

1.   First you will need a separate sheet for each identified option.

2.   On each sheet write clearly the option concerned, and then beneath it the headings 'pros' and 'cons' (or 'advantages' and disadvantages', or simply 'for' and 'against'). Many decisions simply involve the choice of whether to go ahead or not, to change or not; in these cases you need only one sheet.

3.   Then write down as many effects and implications of the particular option that you (and others if appropriate) can think of, placing each in the relevant column.

4.   If helpful 'weight' each factor, by giving it a score out of three or five points (e.g., 5 being extremely significant, and 1 being of minor significance).

5.   When you have listed all the points you can think of for the option concerned compare the number or total score of the items/effects/factors between the two columns.

6.   This will provide a reflection and indication as to the overall attractiveness and benefit of the option concerned. If you have scored each item you will actually be able to arrive at a total score, being the difference between the pros and cons column totals. The bigger the difference between the total pros and total cons then the more attractive the option is.

7.   If you have a number of options and have complete a pros and cons sheet for each option, compare the attractiveness - points difference between pros and cons - for each option. The biggest positive difference between pros and cons is the most attractive option.

8.   N.B. If you don't like the answer that the decision-making sheet(s) reflect back to you, it means you haven't included all the cons - especially the emotional ones, or you haven't scored the factors consistently, so re-visit the sheet(s) concerned.

You will find that writing things down in this way will help you to see things more clearly, become more objective and detached, which will help you to make clearer decisions.

Pros and cons weighted decision-making template - example

This example weighs the pros and cons of buying a new car to replace an old car.

The weighted pros and cons are purely examples - they are not in any way suggestions of how you should make such a decision. Our decision-making criteria depend on our own personal situations and preferences. And your criteria and weighting will change according to time, situation, and probably your mood too.

Use whatever scoring method you want to. The example shows low scores but you can score each item up to 10, or 20 or 100 - whatever makes sense to you personally. Or you can use an 'A/B/C' or three-star scoring method, whatever works for you.

Should I replace my old car with a new one?
pros (for - advantages)	score	cons (against - disadvantages)	score
better comfort	3	cost outlay will mean making sacrifices	5
lower fuel costs	3	higher insurance	3
lower servicing costs	4	time and hassle to choose and buy it	2
better for family use	3	disposal or sale of old car	2
better reliability	5	big decisions like this scare and upset me	4
it'll be a load off my mind	2
total 6 pros	20	total 5 cons	16

In the above example, on the basis of the pros and cons and the weighting applied, there seems to be  a clear overall (and quantifiable) advantage in the decision to go ahead and buy a new car.

Notice that with this decision-making method it's even possible to include 'intangible' emotional issues in the pros and cons comparison, for example 'it'll be a load off my mind', and 'decisions scare and upset me'.

A decision-making pros and cons list like this helps remove the emotion which blocks clear thinking and decision-making. It enables objectivity and measurement, rather than reacting from instinct, or avoiding the issue altogether. Objective measurement helps in making a confident decision.

The total weighted scores are the main deciding factor rather than the total number of pros and cons, although there is not a scientific 'right' or 'wrong' way to consider the total number of pros and cons compared with the total weighted scores.

If the weighted scores are indicating a decision which makes you feel uncomfortable, then check your weightings, and also check that you've not missed out any factors on either side of the table.

If the decision makes you feel uncomfortable and this is not reflected in the table, then add it as a factor and give it a score.

Seeking feedback or input from a trusted neutral friend can be helpful in confirming your factors and their scores.

And once you have made your decision , get on with it  

Keep Smiling !

The Purpose of BPM

The purpose of business process modelling

A Business Process Model diagram is a tool - a means to an end, not a performance outcome in its own right.

The final output is improvement in the way that the business process works.

The focus of the improvements is on 'value added' actions that make the customer service and experience better, and on reducing wasted time and effort.

There are two main different types of Business Process Models:

• the 'as is' or baseline model (the current situation)
• and the 'to be' model (the intended new situation)

which are used to analyse, test, implement and improve the process.

The aim of modelling is to illustrate a complete process, enabling managers, consultants and staff to improve the flow and streamline the process.

The outcomes of a business process modelling project are essentially:

• value for the customer, and

• reduced costs for the company,

leading to increased profits.

Other secondary consequences arising from successful Business Process Modelling can be increased competitive advantage, market growth, and better staff morale and retention.

There are no absolute rules for the scope or extent of a Business Process Model in terms of departments and activities covered.

Before committing lots of resources to Business Process Modelling proper consideration should be given to the usefulness and focus of the exercise - ask the questions:

• Does the modelling have the potential to produce gains that will justify the time and effort?
• Will the modelling be structured so that people will understand the outputs (not too big and complex as to be self-defeating)?
• Do people understand why we are doing it, and "what's in it for them"?

As with other management tools, there is no point producing a fantastically complex model that no-one can understand or use, just as it is a bit daft to spend hundreds of hours analysing anything which is of relatively minor significance.

Business Process Modelling is a powerful methodology when directed towards operations which can benefit from improvement, and when people involved are on-board and supportive.

the psychological contract

the theory of psychological contracts in organizational employment - and wider 'psychological contracting' in relationships, communications and societies

'The Psychological Contract' is an increasingly relevant aspect of workplace relationships and wider human behaviour.

Descriptions and definitions of the Psychological Contract first emerged in the 1960s, notably in the work of organizational and behavioural theorists Chris Argyris and Edgar Schein. Many other experts have contributed ideas to the subject since then, and continue to do so, either specifically focusing on the the Psychological Contract, or approaching it from a particular perspective, of which there are many. The Psychological Contract is a deep and varied concept and is open to a wide range of interpretations and theoretical studies.

Primarily, the Psychological Contract refers to the relationship between an employer and its employees, and specifically concerns mutual expectations of inputs and outcomes.

The Psychological Contract is usually seen from the standpoint or feelings of employees, although a full appreciation requires it to be understood from both sides.

Simply, in an employment context, the Psychological Contract is the fairness or balance (typically as perceived by the employee) between:

• how the employee is treated by the employer, and
• what the employee puts into the job.

The words 'employees' or 'staff' or 'workforce' are equally appropriate in the above description.

At a deeper level the concept becomes increasingly complex and significant in work and management - especially in change management and in large organizations.

Interestingly the theory and principles of the Psychological Contract can also be applied beyond the employment situation to human relationships and wider society.

Unlike many traditional theories of management and behaviour, the Psychological Contract and its surrounding ideas are still quite fluid; they are yet to be fully defined and understood, and are far from widely recognised and used in organizations.

The concept of 'psychological contracting' is even less well understood in other parts of society where people and organisations connect, despite its significance and potential usefulness. Hopefully what follows will encourage you to advance the appreciation and application of its important principles, in whatever way makes sense to you. It is a hugely fertile and potentially beneficial area of study.

At the heart of the Psychological Contract is a philosophy - not a process or a tool or a formula. This reflects its deeply significant, changing and dynamic nature.

The way we define and manage the Psychological Contract, and how we understand and apply its underpinning principles in our relationships - inside and outside of work - essentially defines our humanity.

Respect, compassion, trust, empathy, fairness, objectivity - qualities like these characterize the Psychological Contract, just as they characterize a civilized outlook to life as a whole.

Please note that both UK-English and US-English spellings may appear for certain terms on this website, for example organization/organisation, behavior/behaviour, etc. When using these materials please adapt the spellings to suit your own situation.

HR

Evaluation of HRD function performance

If you are responsible for HR functions and services to internal and/or external customers, you might find it useful to go beyond Kirkpatrick's evaluation of training and learning, and to evaluate also satisfaction among staff/customers with HR department's overall performance. The parameters for such an evaluation ultimately depend on what your HR function is responsible for - in other words, evaluate according to expectations.

Like anything else, evaluating customer satisfaction must first begin with a clear appreciation of (internal) customers' expectations. Expectations - agreed, stated, published or otherwise - provide the basis for evaluating all types of customer satisfaction.

If people have expectations which go beyond HR department's stated and actual responsibilities, then the matter must be pursued because it will almost certainly offer an opportunity to add value to HR's activities, and to add value and competitive advantage to your organisation as a whole. In this fast changing world, HR is increasingly the department which is most likely to see and respond to new opportunities for the support and development of the your people - so respond, understand, and do what you can to meet new demands when you see them.

If you are keen to know how well HR department is meeting people's expectations, a questionnaire, and/or some group discussions will shed light on the situation.

Here are some example questions. Effectively you should be asking people to say how well HR or HRD department has done the following:

• helped me to identify, understand, identify and prioritise my personal development needs and wishes, in terms of: skills, knowledge, experience and attitude (or personal well-being, or emotional maturity, or mood, or mind-set, or any other suitable term meaning mental approach, which people will respond to)
• helped me to understand my own preferred learning style and learning methods for acquiring new skills, knowledge and attitudinal capabilities
• helped me to identify and obtain effective learning and development that suits my preferred style and circumstances
• helped me to measure my development, and for the measurement to be clear to my boss and others in the organisation who should know about my capabilities
• provided tools and systems to encourage and facilitate my personal development
• and particularly helped to optimise the relationship between me and my boss relating to assisting my own personal development and well-being
• provided a working environment that protects me from discrimination and harassment of any sort
• provided the opportunity for me to voice my grievances if I have any, (in private, to a suitably trained person in the company whom I trust) and then if I so wish for proper consideration and response to be given to them by the company
• provided the opportunity for me to receive counselling and advice in the event that I need private and supportive help of this type, again from a suitably trained person in the company whom I trust
• ensured that disciplinary processes are clear and fair, and include the right of appeal
• ensured that recruitment and promotion of staff are managed fairly and transparently
• ensuring that systems and activities exist to keep all staff informed of company plans, performance, etc., (as normally included in a Team Briefing system)
• (if you dare...) ensuring that people are paid and rewarded fairly in relation to other company employees, and separately, paid and rewarded fairly when compared to market norms (your CEO will not like this question, but if you have a problem in this area it's best to know about it...)
• (and for managers) helped me to ensure the development needs of my staff are identified and supported

This is not an exhaustive list - just some examples. Many of the examples contain elements which should under typical large company circumstances be broken down to create more and smaller questions about more specific aspects of HR support and services.

If you work in HR, or run an HR department, and consider that some of these issues and expectations fall outside your remit, then consider who else is responsible for them.

I repeat, in this fast changing world, HR is increasingly the department which is most likely to see and respond to new opportunities for the support and development of the your people - so respond, understand, and do what you can to meet new demands when you see them. In doing so you will add value to your people and your organisation - and your department.

Job Motivation

Adams' equity theory

j Stacey Adams - equity theory on job motivation

John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioural psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963. There are similarities with Charles Handy's extension and interpretation of previous simpler theories of Maslow, Herzberg and other pioneers of workplace psychology, in that the theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors affect each individual's assessment and perception of their relationship with their work, and thereby their employer. However, awareness and cognizance of the wider situation - and crucially comparison - feature more strongly in Equity Theory than in many other earlier motivational models.

The Adams' Equity Theory model therefore extends beyond the individual self, and incorporates influence and comparison of other people's situations - for example colleagues and friends - in forming a comparative view and awareness of Equity, which commonly manifests as a sense of what is fair.

When people feel fairly or advantageously treated they are more likely to be motivated; when they feel unfairly treated they are highly prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivation. The way that people measure this sense of fairness is at the heart of Equity Theory.

Equity, and thereby the motivational situation we might seek to assess using the model, is not dependent on the extent to which a person believes reward exceeds effort, nor even necessarily on the belief that reward exceeds effort at all. Rather, Equity, and the sense of fairness which commonly underpins motivation, is dependent on the comparison a person makes between his or here reward/investment ratio with the ratio enjoyed (or suffered) by others considered to be in a similar situation.

Adams' equity theory

Adams called personal efforts and rewards and other similar 'give and take' issues at work respectively 'inputs' and 'outputs'.

Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Outputs are everything we take out in return.

These terms help emphasise that what people put into their work includes many factors besides working hours, and that what people receive from their work includes many things aside from money.

Adams used the term 'referent' others to describe the reference points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the pivotal part of the theory.

Adams Equity Theory goes beyond - and is quite different from merely assessing effort and reward. Equity Theory adds a crucial additional perspective of comparison with 'referent' others (people we consider in a similar situation).

Equity theory thus helps explain why pay and conditions alone do not determine motivation.

In terms of how the theory applies to work and management, we each seek a fair balance between what we put into our job and what we get out of it. But how do we decide what is afair balance?

The answer lies in Equity Theory. Importantly we arrive at our measure of fairness - Equity - by comparing our balance of effort and reward, and other factors of give and take - the ratio of input and output - with the balance or ratio enjoyed by other people, whom we deem to be relevant reference points or examples ('referent' others).

Crucially this means that Equity does not depend on our input-to-output ratio alone - it depends on our comparison between our ratio and the ratio of others.

We form perceptions of what constitutes a fair ratio (a balance or trade) of inputs and outputs by comparing our own situation with other 'referents' (reference points or examples) in the market place as we see it.

In practice this helps to explain why people are so strongly affected by the situations (and views and gossip) of colleagues, friends, partners etc., in establishing their own personal sense of fairness or equity in their work situations.

Adams' Equity Theory is therefore a far more complex and sophisticated motivational model than merely assessing effort (inputs) and reward (outputs).

The actual sense of equity or fairness (or inequity or unfairness) within Equity Theory is arrived at only after incorporating a comparison between our own input and output ratio with the input and output ratios that we see or believe to be experienced or enjoyed by others in similar situations.

This comparative aspect of Equity Theory provides a far more fluid and dynamic appreciation of motivation than typically arises in motivational theories and models based on individual circumstance alone.

For example, Equity Theory explains why people can be happy and motivated by their situation one day, and yet with no change to their terms and working conditions can be made very unhappy and demotivated, if they learn for example that a colleague (or worse an entire group) is enjoying a better reward-to-effort ratio.

It also explains why giving one person a promotion or pay-rise can have a demotivating effect on others.

Note also, importantly, that what matters is the ratio, not the amount of effort or reward per se. This explains for example why and how full-time employees will compare their situations and input-to-output ratios with part-time colleagues, who very probably earn less, however it is the ratio of input-to-output - reward-to-effort - which counts, and if the part-timer is perceived to enjoy a more advantageous ratio, then so this will have a negative effect on the full-timer's sense of Equity, and with it, their personal motivation.

Remember also that words like efforts and rewards, or work and pay, are an over-simplification - hence Adams' use of the terms inputs and outputs, which more aptly cover all aspects of what a person gives, sacrifices, tolerates, invests, etc., into their work situation, and all aspects of what a person receives and benefits from in their work and wider career, as they see it.